Crime and Deviance

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Research Methods

Sociologist perspectives: 

• Positivism: Is a sociological approach to research which uses scientific processes, using experiments to test hypothesises. e.g. giving people situations and observing their responses, also gathering statistics, using surveys and historical sources are all methods used. 
• Subjectivism: Is a sociological approach to research which tries to get into the minds of people they are observing. These types of sociologists believe individuals effect society and individual responses and behaviour are very important into understanding the bigger picture. 

Longitudinal studies: Studies that are carried out over a long period of time. 

Primary Data: Data collected first hand by researchers in methods such as surveys, interviews and observations.

Secondary Data: Data already collected by a researcher in methods such as official statistics, reports and historical documents. 

Qualitative: Is research presented in the form of words

Quantitative: Is research presented and collected in statistical formation

Validity:Refers to whether the findings accurately reflect the reality they are describing. 

Reliability:Refers to whether the findings can be checked by another researcher. 

Hawthorne effect: People changing their behaviour when they are aware they're being studied (interviewer bias) 

Different types of Sampling: 

1. Stratified Dividing groups into subcategories (ethnicity, age, etc.) and selecting one of each type. This sampling method is good as it shows a representative point of view from different groups in society, however this method is time consuming. 
2. Quota: The researcher picks participants until they reach the number of people they need (ie. their quota) This is good as it is quick and easy, however bias can occur and not everyone has a fair chance of being selected. 
3. Systematic: When the researcher uses a system where they select say every 10th person to participate in their research. This is a useful sampling method as participants will be a cross section of population so more representative however at the same time, the area may not consist of different groups of people leading to less representative data. 
4. Random: Choosing any person with no set system. 
5. Snowball: Respondents with desirable traits give names of further appropriate people. This is good as it is useful for contact with certain hard to reach groups (gangs) however it is very time consuming so only small samples are used 

Questionnaires (favoured by positivists) 

Open questions: Questions which allow the respondent to freely write their thoughts and opinions. 

Closed questions: Have fixed responses for the respondent to pick from. 

Pilot study: A preliminary study designed to identify any problems before the real research is conducted. 

There are three types of questionnaires...

Postal:Postal questionnaires are sent through the mail to people to answer. This method is good as they are quick to distribute so it is easy to send them to many people for representative sample and saves time. However people may not send them back or may take it as a joke and therefore fill it out incorrectly which can make the research invalid. Misunderstandings also can not be clarified with this method. 

Direct:Direct is a face to face questionnaire conducted on the stop. This is good because everyone who receives it fills it out and it is also cheap and easy to analyse. This method is also useful as misunderstandings can be clarified. However Hawthorne effect can occur as the respondent may be influenced by the researcher. 

Interview: Are personal questionnaires conducted as an interview. These have high response rates and misunderstandings can be clarified. These methods also make the respondent feel more comfortable so the respondent is more likely to open up. Although interviewer bias can still occur and this method is very costly and time consuming. 

Interviews (favoured by positivists) 

• Structured: Have pre-set questions which the researcher asks in a particular order. These have high response rates and can gather rich detailed, in depth answers. Interviews are also useful as the researcher can rephrase questions to clarify misunderstandings and everyone answers the same questions so this makes data easier to analyse and comprehend. However interviewer bias can occur, and set questions don't allow the respondent to fully open up and feel comfortable. 
• Unstructured:Do not have pre-set questions, the interviewer will just ask any question relating to a certain topic. This has many advantages such as participants can freely talk about what's important to them. Because they are less formal the respondent will feel more comfortable. And questions can be rephrased to clarify misunderstandings. However this method means that the interviewer can interpret their own answers in questions which can lead to bias and this is very time consuming so smaller samples must be used. 

Observation: 

• Non participant: (fly on the wall) Researcher observes from a distance without taking an active part. This reduces the risk of Hawthorne effect due to little interaction and allows the researcher to directly watch how the respondent behaves. However if the participants are aware they are being observed, then Hawthorne effect can be increased. Also by not taking part the researcher does not fully understand the thoughts and feelings of the respondent. 
• Participant: Taking an active part in the group you are studying. This (if covert) creates high validity data as taking part allows understanding of the groups behaviour. However the researcher might have to get involved in criminal behaviour in order to view some groups (unethical) and the research cannot be replicated therefore is an unscientific approach. 
• Covert Secret observation - the respondent is unaware they are being watched. This allows sociologists access to groups that typically exclude outsides (gangs, criminals) and reduces Hawthorne effect leading to more validity. However this method is difficult for the recording and asking of questions and answers. 
• Overt Group is aware they are being watched/observed. This is good as it is ethical, there is no deception involved as well as qualitative data can be gained. However this is time consuming, costly and observer effect can occur. 

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Mass media

Different approaches and theories on media: 

The hypodermic syringe model: Is the idea that the media has power over its audience; it can control and persuade people. The audience recieves "daily injections" of information from the media and this determines their behaviour. It has an immediate effect on the audience *Refer to Bandura doll experiment* Watch it below...

The uses and gratification model: (Mcqual) The media does not use us; we use the media. This theory is how the media is used to actively satisfy peoples needs based on their ability to exercise choice and control. Audiences actively seek media for specific gratifications and this theory deals with why media is chosen, what purpose media serves and how media competes with other media sources to met satisfaction. 

Decoding approach: The audience actively decodes media coverage; their own backgrounds (social class, gender, age, ethnicity) effect what they deduce from the content. 

Moral panics: The media creates "moral panic" by using inflated language like the word "terror" or exaggerated claims. This causes the public to panic and want action. 

Formal control on the mass media: Legal limits to media's freedom: 

1. The laws of libel: Forbid the publication of an untrue statement about a person which may bring him/her into ridicule, dislike or hostility in society. 
2. Official secrets act: Make it a criminal offence to report any government activity which the government defines as an official secret without authorization. These are extremely wide ranging acts, which are meant to protect the public interest. However many people argue they are often used to protect political interests of governments. 
3. Defence or D notices: Are often issued by the governments as requests to journalists not to report certain news items which the government believes to be against the national interest. These usually concern military secrets and other info which might be useful to the enemy. 
4. Race relations act: Forbid the expression of opinions which will encourage hatred or discrimination against people because of their race. 
5. Ofcom: Main regulator of mass media, responsible for protecting public from harmful broadcasts and protecting consumer interest. 

Ownership of the mass media: Fewer and fewer companies own the media organisations due to increasing concentration. This concentration is due to three major developments....
Vertical integration: All stages in production, distribution and consumption being owned by one company
Horizontal integration: merging of companies in similar sections of media e.g. Murdoch owning fox and sky reduces competition.
News Corp. (Rupert Murdoch) and Time Warner hold highest percentage of media. 

Agenda setting: Agenda setting refers to what subjects are decided to be brought to the public's attention through mass media and therefore direct the public discussion and debate on these topics. E.g the owners views towards a party will be portrayed through media.

Gate keeping: The refusal to cover some issues e.g. strikes are widely reported where as industrial injuries hardly are.

Norm setting: The process whereby the mass media emphasizes and reinforces conformity to society and seek to isolate those who don't by making them victims of unfavourable public opinions.

• The media outline acceptable boundaries of behaviour
• the views and behaviours of some groups are presented positively, while others negatively.
• stereotypical images are created
• media shape public opinion

The mass media acts as an agency of secondary socialisation

The mass media influences our political attitudes, as well as our behaviour. It is often through the media that people develop their political attitudes. In Britain most newspapers tend to side with one political party depending on the owners view. This means readers of that newspaper are more likely to support the newspapers chosen party. It is often through the press that the influencing of political attitudes takes place. As they have much influence on politics due to the coverage of politics and the way people interpret stories. The press may discourage people from voting due to negative portrayal of politicians and their system.

Does the mass media promote democracy? 
To some extent the media promotes democracy, there are many media companies which make us aware of various social, political and economical activities happening around the world. The Media promotes democracy in ways such as propaganda; Democrats use the media to communicate their message and things such as public debates can take place which reflects public opinions. Because the media in democratic societies are not controlled by the state, the risk of censorship is reduced and free speech is protected. Anyone can put their view across , by setting up a website, blog, newspaper or other means of communicating ideas. As well as this the media accurately reflects public opinions that already exist in society, rather than creating new ones.
Although the media promotes democracy to some extent it also restricts it. The media reflects the conservative views of their wealthy leaders. While journalists are often critical and expose wrong doing, they frequently avoid issues which may loose them their job. Also news values, agenda setting, norm setting and other sources of bias mean only some issues are covered. The media choose what to report and how to report it and therefore provide a bias view of the world.
Although the media does promote democracy to a certain extent, overall I believe they restrict it. The media simply does not reflect public opinion rather the bias views of the owners, creating a biased perception of the world.

Key definitions: 

1. Traditional media: Refers to the media which was dominant and existing in the past such as newspapers, radios and magazines; media is now developing and is called the "new media" which includes media sources such as satellite TV
2. Agenda setting:Is when journalists decide what things are shared with the media that will attract an audience e.g. disasters and crime.
3. Opinion polls:Poll given to people asking for their views on certain topics e.g. what time a show should be put on.
4. News values:Are things that the media use to control peoples behaviours and beliefs. It is things that the media believe to be "newsworthy" and whether it will spark interest within the audience.
5. Broadsheet:Newspapers for the Upper - Middle class e.g. Telegraph
6. Bias:When someone is one sided to a particular person or topic portraying them in a better light then someone else. e.g owners views are portrayed more positively then their prejudices.
7. Censorship:Is the coverage of certain topics coming in contact with audiences. Especially in war times; information isn't allowed to be shown to protect "human interest" and to make sure the government is protect. E.g violence is censored.
8. Folk devils:Certain groups of society portrayed in a negative light usually through the use of stereotypes to create moral panics. These groups are seen as deviant, as they hold different beliefs to those in the main group of society. E.g. youth.
9. Sensationalism: When the media exaggerates a certain topics for more attention e.g celebs scandal.

Sociological approaches

• Marxist (Conflict approach) - Believe society is based on conflicting interest between different groups. The owners of the newspapers are part of a powerful and wealthy minority group. They are in a strong position to put across their personal interests and as the owners they are able to control the content of the press and they do so in their own interests. Supporters of the conflict apporach point to the following developments as evidence to back up their views... 
• There has been an increaing concentration of press ownership in the hands of a few companies and individuals - small companies have been taken over by media giants such as Rupert Murdock. 
• There has been a globalisation of these companies - a small number of huge companies (conglomerates) have interests in the media all over the world. A large proportion of what we see and hear comes from a small group of companies.  
• The Pluralists - Believe that no one group dominates. They believe that the whole range of opinions is represented in the press and that there is not any real link between the owners and the content of the press - newspapers and magazines are driven by market forces - they give their reader what they want to see and read and if they did not the readers would use their market power to stop buying the particular paper. Pluralism supports the freedom of the press and uses this evidence to support its beliefs. 
• There is freedom to set up new newspapers if existing ones do not meet the needs of the market - owners cannot dictate content - they have to provide what people will buy. The public have the freedom to switch from one paper to another. 
• The day to day control is on the hands of the editors and not the owners. 

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Family - Sociology

Sociological approaches to family: 

Functionalists: See family as positive for society. They believe that the nuclear family is beneficial to society as it provides functions such as reproduction, primary socialisation and economic support. 

New Right: See the family as negative for society, if not nuclear. They say children from Nuclear families do better at school, get better jobs and do not turn to crime. 

Marxism: See the family as negative. Marxists believe society is based upon conflict between classes. They believe the family helps to maintain class differences in society as the rich can give children better start than poor. They believe the family socialises the working class to accept it is fair that classes are unequal. 

Feminists: See the family as negative, they believe the family is bad for women as family teaches patriarchal values through the teaching of gender roles during socialisation.

Changes in families in modern societies: 

1. More people living together without being married: Religion isn't so influential nowadays so it isn't considered a sin any more to have children without being married. Divorce rates are rising and nowadays many people decide not to remarry with their new partner. Same sex couples were unable to marry until very recently and people are likely to trial living together before marriage. These are all factors influencing these changes. Feminists say this is a good thing as marriage is a patriarchal institution. Functionalists and New Right disagree as they believe nuclear family is the only family type that can do the job properly. 
2. More single parent families: The divorce act in 1960's made it easier to get a divorce. There are more teenage pregnancies than in the past. The availability of in vitro fertilisation are all factors behind these families. Functionalists are completely against these families, they do not think a single parent can perform all the important functions of the family. 
3. More same sex families: More socially acceptable due to campaigns by gay right groups. Gay couples are now allowed to adopt. 

Roles within the family: 

• Segregated conjugal roles: When Husband and Wife do not share household responsibilities and childcare. They do not partake in the same leisure activities. 
• Integrated conjugal roles: Partners share common friends, leisure activity and decision making as well as household jobs. 

Domestic division of labour: The amount of housework carried out by men and women is referred to as domestic labour. Traditionally women were responsibly for housework and the man was the bread winner however it is argued that times have changed and the division of labour is symmetrical. 

Young and Willmott: argued men and women are sharing housework and childcare more equally. The symmetrical family according to the two is...

• nuclear
• privatised
• equal

Ann Oakley; a feminist, criticised Young and Willmotts findings arguing they were exaggerated. She believed there is no equality when it comes to conjugal roles and that females work much harder. 

Monogamy: When someone is married to one person at a time (Main form of marriage)
Polygamy: When someone is married to more than one person.
Polygyny: When a man has several wives.
Polyandry: When a female has several husbands.

Why are families more child centred? 

• Smaller families mean more care and attention can be devoted to child
• parents work shorter hours therefore have more time to spend with children
• welfare benefits
• parents concerned of safety of children. 

Functions of the family: 

1. Emotional support 
2. Economic support
3. physical care
4. reproduction
5. socialisation
6. social control

To what extent is there equality of roles in the family between males and females? 

Yes: joint conjugal roles

joint decision making

equal involvement in childcare/housework

No: Segregated conjugal roles

women at home

domestic violence and abuse

EXAM QUESTION: Is the family in decline? 

Yes it is: 

• Around 40% of marriage in the early 2000's will end in divorce
• In Britain today, about a quarter of families with dependent children just one one parent.
• About 40% of births are outside marriage, and the proportion in growing every year. 
• There are well over a million cohabiting couples (couple living together when they aren't married) who have refused to get married. 
• Rising rates of divorce, cohabitation, lone parent and reconstituted families show a picture that family is in decline. This has been blamed for a wide range of social problems such as social disorder and crime. 

No it's not: 

• The rising divorce rate is caused by easier divorce laws, more sympathetic public attitudes, rather than marriage breakdowns.
• Lone parenthood arises from a variety of reasons and lone parents are able to provide care and security for children as two-parent families.
• Despite the record number of children being born outside of marriage, nearly 80% of those births are registered jointly by parents with the same address. 
• Many of those who cohabit eventually marry - about 60% of first time cohabitations turn into marriages. 
• The causes of these social problems all too often are blamed on the family. Those whole blame the family are often looking for a simple solution. 

Different family types

1. Single parent families: One parent and there dependent children. 
2. Nuclear: Two parents and their dependent children. 
3. Extended: Nuclear family with additional family members such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, etc. 
4. Blended/Reconstituted: Families with step parents and children. 
5. Empty nest: Two parents living together - child left home. 
6. Households: Group of people living together in the same place. 

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Education

Tripartite System: Students sit the 11+ exam at the end of primary to decide which high school they will go too. There are three types... 

1. Grammar: For those who passed the exam - considered intelligent

2. Technical: Those who didn't pass but showed strong abilities with technical work.

3. Secondary Modern: Any one who didn't go to grammar or technical school get a basic education for less skilled jobs. 

There were two problems with these schools and this system... 

1. People who failed the 11+ exam but showed strong practical skills often didn't get opportunities to go to technical schools due to lack of funding. 

2. Labelling students according to ability led to self - fulfilling prophecy (Labelling affects the way in which pupils think about themselves and how teachers treat them)

Later.... Comprehensive schools were introduced...

Theses were opened in the 60s and were open to all children regardless of ability. The 11+ system was abolished although grammar schools still existed. 

Sociological views

• Functionalists: Believe the schools teach key skills and knowledge necessary for society. They believe that education acts as a sieve, grading children according to their abilities and placing them in their most appropriate position in society. 
• Marxists: Believe education reinforces the class system by ensuring poor children learn skills of low paid jobs. They believe that education doesn't provide equal opportunities for everybody and that we are socialised to accept values of the most powerful group in society. 
• Feminist: Believe education reinforces patriarchy by ensuring women learn lower paid job skills. They believe education provides different opportunities to girls and boys, pushing them into studying different subjects based on gender. 

Secondary socialisation: Schools act as an agent of secondary socialisation not only through what is taught but also in the ways children learn. 

The hidden curriculum: Are things that students are not aware they are learning. Such as...

• Competition: Schools encourage students to compete against each other 
• Obeying rules and authority: Students learn to obey society through rewards and sanctions. 
• Hierarchy: Students learn people are on different levels.
• Time management skills and order: Students learn how to time manage with their homework and getting to class and learn order through uniforms. 

Social class and education: Middle class children do better in education then working class for a number of reasons... 

1. Cultural capital: Middle class students have more finance, support and encouragement. 
2. Better living conditions: Middle class likely have better diets, their own space to work in and access to internet giving them a better position to learn. 
3. Higher levels of aspiration: aim for higher status job (parents influence)
4. Halo effect from (middle class) teachers: Middle class students seen as more intelligent because they share same norms and values as teachers. This leads to labelling and self fulfilling prophecy
5. Peer values that encourage a more studious approach to school work: Students choose friends like them who share same norms and values. (Middle class having higher ambitions therefore will have more support from peers - typically)

Gender and education: On average girls do better than boys, although this was not the case in the past; feminist sociologists showed this was due to a change in ambitions. In the 1970's girls said they wanted to get married and have a family rather than a career. When repeated in 1990's the same researcher (Sue Sharpe) found that ambitions had changed and girls now wanted a career. 

• There is now less restriction on the subjects boys and girls can study, and nowadays it is more acceptable for girls to go into jobs such as engineering and males jobs such as nursing - however the gender bias is not completely gone. 
• Girls are more likely to take greater pride in their work - this may be linked to the greater values that girls place on personal appearance, which is encouraged by other institutions such as mass media. 
• Some sociologists suggest that boys have developed an anti-school subculture. Where is is seen as "uncool" to work. However some girls are also apart of this culture, suggesting gender doesn't matter. 

Ethnicity and education: Research has shown that even when teachers don't deliberately be racist, they still discriminate against children from ethnic backgrounds. This is because of their interpretation of differences in body language, speech, dress and style of walking. Some teachers may see this as a challenge to their authority. 

Cultural deprivation: It has been argued some ethnic minorities and cultures such as Asians have more support and encouragement in their children's education rather than Afro Caribbean, however other studies have criticised this idea. It has also been argued that some ethnic minorities under achieve as Elaborate code is not the language they use. 

What is elaborate code you may ask? Elaborate code is the language used in classrooms (Middle to upper class language) whereas many ethnic minorities use Restricted code which is lower to working class language consisting of basic language and slang. 

Marketization of education:  Is how schools are now run by free market forces. Doesn't use tax payers funding any more; parents pay school fees. This was developed by Chub and Moe to improve educational standards and allow schools more freedom in how they spend their money. 

Comprehensive school vs Independent school

• Comprehensive: 
• Try to break social barriers between class, gender and ethnic groups
• Offer opportunities to all students regardless of ability
• However accepting lower standards means those of higher levels will be slowed down or vice versa
• offer parent a limited choice
• have little funding so don't have good facilities
• Independent: 
• Smaller classes and better facilities result in better education 
• better examination results
• more power to take action against disruptive pupils
• students likely to go to high status universities
• however
• Students may have to travel long distances
• do not mix with people from different backgrounds
• only accessible to rich
• less able students may be held back

How are schools monitored? 

1. League tables: compare schools based on percentages of A* - C grades in GCSE and A levels. 
2. Ofsted inspections: check management, how well subjects are taught etc. 

Old boys network this is a theory that many students from independent/ public schools are contained within their own social sub-culture known as the "Old boys network". This ensures that all the best positions with higher status and power stay within small groups of families. They go to school together, work alongside each other, go to similar social events all to maintain the wealth and status of the group. Even when children who attend independent schools get worse results than those who attend state run schools - they still get better jobs in the end. Showing the corrupt system of how rich families get higher education then poor families. 

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